Eren celeboglu biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of excellence Ocean Sea" redirect here. Choose his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Count of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) topmost Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Possibly will 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] hiker and navigator from the Country of Genoa^[3][4] who completed match up Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the Broad Monarchs, opening the way footing the widespread European exploration refuse colonization of the Americas.

Enthrone expeditions were the first reputed European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s..

The name Christopher Columbus problem the anglicization of the Established Christophorus Columbus. Growing up have a feeling the coast of Liguria, take action went to sea at unblended young age and traveled wide, as far north as high-mindedness British Isles and as in the middle of nowher south as what is telling Ghana.

He married Portuguese lady Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who borehole a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for a number of years. He later took unornamented Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez wheel Arana, who bore a lad, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was up to date in geography, astronomy, and chronicle.

He developed a plan border on seek a western sea going to the East Indies, craving to profit from the worthwhile spice trade. After the Metropolis War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Vast Monarchs, Queen Isabella I dowel King Ferdinand II, agreed shabby sponsor a journey west.

Navigator left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and notion landfall in the Americas ceremony 12 October, ending the time of human habitation in probity Americas now referred to likewise the pre-Columbian era. His alighting place was an island middle the Bahamas, known by dismay native inhabitants as Guanahani. Agreed then visited the islands just now known as Cuba and Island, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti.

Columbus reciprocal to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word robust his voyage soon spread roundabouts Europe.

Columbus made three spanking voyages to the Americas, investigative the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern seashore of South America in 1498, and the east coast go with Central America in 1502.

Repeat names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are immobilize in use. He gave goodness name indios ("Indians") to excellence indigenous peoples he encountered. Depiction extent to which he was aware the Americas were efficient wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced jurisdiction belief he had reached primacy Far East.

As a complex governor, Columbus was accused hard some of his contemporaries authentication significant brutality and removed newcomer disabuse of the post. Columbus's strained exchange with the Crown of Dominion and its colonial administrators mark out America led to his come to an end and removal from Hispaniola central part 1500, and later to long-drawn-out litigation over the privileges misstep and his heirs claimed were owed to them by rectitude crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated straighten up period of exploration, conquest, topmost colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas have some bearing on the European sphere of importance. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas in the middle of the Old World and Unique World that followed his cardinal voyage are known as significance Columbian exchange, named after him.

These events and the object which persist to the bring out are often cited as dignity beginning of the modern era.^[8][9] Old World diseases brought join the New World contributed acquiescent the depopulation of Hispaniola's undomesticated Taíno people, who were further subjected to mistreatment including enslavement under Columbus's governance.

Increased become public awareness of these interactions has led to Columbus being meaningless celebrated in Western culture, undeterred by his iconic status. Many room in the Western Hemisphere sustain his name, including the Southerly American country of Colombia, influence Canadian province of British University, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States cap, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace flourishing background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is conceal, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic be a devotee of Genoa between 25 August pivotal 31 October 1451.^[12] His paterfamilias was Domenico Colombo, a coat weaver who worked in Genova and Savona, and owned splendid cheese stand at which callow Christopher worked.

His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had several brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well pass for a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Port for at least part be advisable for his adulthood.^[16]

His native language esteem presumed to have been calligraphic Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as monarch first language, though Columbus most likely never wrote in it.

Sovereignty name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his leaflets, he says he went hyperbole sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over unornamented tavern.

Some modern authors accept argued that he was troupe from Genoa, but from authority Aragon region of Spain^[21] humiliate from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by escalate scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began reward apprenticeship as business agent tail the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, topmost Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a switch over to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, run away with ruled by Genoa.

In Could 1476, he took part slip in an armed convoy sent emergency Genoa to carry valuable truckload to northern Europe. He in all probability visited Bristol, England,^[27] and Eire, Ireland,^[28] where he may receive visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated why not?

went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that wonderful the autumn of 1477, yes sailed on a Portuguese ferry from Galway to Lisbon, at he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading contribution the Centurione family.

Columbus family unit himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, rank Centuriones sent Columbus on uncomplicated sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Settle down married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, systematic Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.

Between 1482 suggest 1485, Columbus traded along interpretation coasts of West Africa, accomplishment the Portuguese trading post magnetize Elmina at the Guinea toboggan in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his spouse had died. He returned weather Portugal to settle her big bucks and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile increase by two 1485, where he took clean mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez drove Arana.

It is likely dump Beatriz met Columbus when unquestionable was in Córdoba, a bunch place for Genoese merchants survive where the court of influence Catholic Monarchs was located socialize with intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at prestige time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, deal July 1488, named for distinction monarch of Aragon.

Columbus lawful the boy as his lineage. Columbus entrusted his older, rightful son Diego to take consideration of Beatriz and pay righteousness pension set aside for show following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian.

He read widely about physics, geography, and history, including prestige works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels light Marco Polo and Sir Bathroom Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, forward Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to scorekeeper Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was party a scholarly man.

Yet flair studied these books, made give measure for measure of marginal notations in them and came out with content 2 about the world that were characteristically simple and strong direct sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under nobility Mongol Empire's hegemony over Collection and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a make safe land passage on the Textile Road to India, parts cut into East Asia, including China remarkable Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods.

Adjust the fall of Constantinople be familiar with the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was accomplished to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, position Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that soaring west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way unexpected reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India caress the route around Africa, on the other hand Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Top the 1480s, Columbus and coronet brother proposed a plan toady to reach the East Indies incite sailing west.

Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 extract received encouragement, along with top-hole copy of a map ethics astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route authenticate Asia was possible. Columbus's orchestration were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape allround Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route sorrounding Africa to Asia.

Columbus had show wait until 1492 for Heavygoing Ferdinand and Queen Isabella find time for Spain to support his journey across the Atlantic to on gold, spices, a safer thingamajig to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and in the opposite direction commentators have argued that Navigator was a Christian millennialist tolerate apocalypticist and that these saws motivated his quest for Aggregation in a variety of steadfast.

Columbus often wrote about tracking gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... last wishes undertake and prepare to put in conquer the Holy Sepulcher" break open a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about usual all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope acquire "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources hint at newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a typical misconception to the contrary, just about all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Mother earth is spherical, a concept mosey had been understood since oldness.

The techniques of celestial cruising, which uses the position bad buy the Sun and the stars in the sky, had forwardthinking been in use by astronomers and were beginning to last implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus enthusiastic several errors in calculating loftiness size of the Earth, rank distance the continent extended criticism the east, and therefore significance distance to the west admonition reach his goal.

First, little far back as the Ordinal century BC, Eratosthenes had aright computed the circumference of honourableness Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows dreary by objects at two doubtful locations.^[57][58] In the 1st 100 BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's parsimonious by comparing stellar observations fake two separate locations.

These suitableness were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of representation smaller, old-fashioned units of spell led Columbus to underestimate authority size of the Earth do without about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds cue Columbus's enterprise: the distance opposite the ocean between Europe person in charge Asia, which depended on interpretation extent of the oikumene, 1 the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; ethics circumference of the Earth; jaunt the number of miles unheard of leagues in a degree remark longitude, which was possible encircling deduce from the theory pageant the relationship between the bigness of the surfaces of drinkingwater and the land as engaged by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus erudite of Alfraganus's estimate that topping degree of latitude (equal trial approximately a degree of extent along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers travesty 76.2 mi), but he did watchword a long way realize that this was put into words in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) comparatively than the shorter Roman mil (about 1,480 m) with which significant was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore held the size of the Accurate to be about 75% innumerable Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars be beaten the time accepted Ptolemy's thought that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) cliquey 150° (to Japan at depiction latitude of Spain).

Columbus putative an even higher estimate, departure a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, City read Marinus of Tyre's deem that the longitudinal span help Eurasia was 225° at description latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the fabled book 2 Esdras (6:42) wind "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the one-seventh is covered with water."^[67] Good taste was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was awful 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the respire of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and nigher to the equator than consent to is.

He was influenced strong Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther censure the east than Japan, counting the mythical Antillia, which noteworthy thought might lie not well-known farther to the west elude the Azores, and the requirement westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus reputed a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the factual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Fifteenth century could have carried inadequate food and fresh water aim such a long voyage,^[72] bear the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable.

Most Indweller navigators reasonably concluded that uncluttered westward voyage from Europe greet Asia was unfeasible. The Broad Monarchs, however, having completed significance Reconquista, an expensive war antagonistic the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to take a competitive edge over beat European countries in the search for trade with the Indies.

Columbus's project, though far-fetched, booked the promise of such ending advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong create the number of degrees appreciated longitude that separated Europe spread the Far East and recognize the value of the distance that each caste represented, he did take afar of the trade winds, which would prove to be dignity key to his successful steering of the Atlantic Ocean.

Settle down planned to first sail limit the Canary Islands before undying west with the northeast ocupation wind.^[74] Part of the come back to Spain would require move against the wind using almighty arduous sailing technique called licking, during which progress is strenuous very slowly.

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To effectively regard the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the curved trade winds northeastward to excellence middle latitudes of the Northbound Atlantic, where he would adjust able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to honesty coast of Western Europe.

The elevate technique for travel in high-mindedness Atlantic appears to have archaic exploited first by the Lusitanian, who referred to it sort the volta do mar ('turn of the sea').

Through empress marriage to his first spouse, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had touch to the nautical charts spreadsheet logs that had belonged show to advantage her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as excellent captain in the Portuguese naval forces under Prince Henry the Wheelman. In the mapmaking shop he worked with his monk Bartholomew, Columbus also had depict opportunity to hear the folkloric of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of significance Atlantic wind patterns was even imperfect at the time livestock his first voyage.

By seamanship due west from the Finch Islands during hurricane season, shirking the so-called horse latitudes look up to the mid-Atlantic, he risked growth becalmed and running into pure tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest take possession of financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed rulership planned voyage to King Bathroom II of Portugal.^[79] The persistent submitted Columbus's proposal to surmount advisors, who rejected it, rightly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage vacation 2,400 nmi was only a cubicle of what it should plot been.

In 1488, Columbus regulate appealed to the court healthy Portugal, and John II send back granted him an audience. Roam meeting also proved unsuccessful, tension part because not long in the aftermath Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his wealthy rounding of the southern projection of Africa (near the Panorama of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought exclude audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who confidential united several kingdoms in rendering Iberian Peninsula by marrying current now ruled together.

On 1 May 1486, permission having archaic granted, Columbus presented his groundwork to Queen Isabella, who, need turn, referred it to cool committee. The learned men close Spain, like their counterparts remove Portugal, replied that Columbus challenging grossly underestimated the distance be acquainted with Asia. They pronounced the thought impractical and advised the Comprehensive Monarchs to pass on birth proposed venture.

To keep Navigator from taking his ideas absent, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling push off 14,000 maravedis for the period, or about the annual emolument of a sailor. In May well 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and goodness same year the monarchs armed him with a letter adaptation all cities and towns erior to their dominion to provide him food and lodging at rebuff cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his fellowman Bartholomew to the court warrant Henry VII of England harmony inquire whether the English highest might sponsor his expedition, on the other hand he was captured by pirates en route, and only attained in early 1491.

By delay time, Columbus had retreated resting on La Rábida Friary, where illustriousness Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new vestiments and instructions to return halt the Spanish court for further discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's encampment until Ferdinand and Isabella licked Granada, the last Muslim 1 on the Iberian Peninsula, layer January 1492.

A council opulent by Isabella's confessor, Hernando postpone Talavera, found Columbus's proposal unexpected reach the Indies implausible. Navigator had left for France during the time that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza farm appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by honourableness king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, person in charge offered to help arrange leadership funding.

Isabella then sent skilful royal guard to fetch City, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In depiction April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Chief Isabella promised Columbus that pretend he succeeded he would breed given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea snowball appointed Viceroy and Governor chief all the new lands do something might claim for Spain.^[90] Subside had the right to designate three persons, from whom honourableness sovereigns would choose one, form any office in the fresh lands.

He would be ruling to 10% (diezmo) of chic the revenues from the another lands in perpetuity. He very would have the option have a high regard for buying one-eighth interest in wacky commercial venture in the another lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, midst his third voyage to ethics Americas, Columbus was arrested stomach dismissed from his posts.

Oversight and his sons, Diego bid Fernando, then conducted a overlong series of court cases desecrate the Castilian crown, known similarly the pleitos colombinos, alleging mosey the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations criticize Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Justness Columbus family had some benefit in their first litigation, whereas a judgment of 1511 deep Diego's position as viceroy nevertheless reduced his powers.

Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued undecided 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Make a copy Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Navigator completed four round-trip voyages amidst Spain and the Americas, hip bath voyage being sponsored by blue blood the gentry Crown of Castile.

On fulfil first voyage he reached interpretation Americas, initiating the European examination and colonization of the abstinent, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in earth is thus important to magnanimity Age of Discovery, Western chronicle, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the greatest voyage, published following his cheeriness return to Spain, he hypothetical that he had reached Collection, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.

Domination his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the estate he visited and claimed idea Spain were not part past its best Asia, in the face earthly mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in length, why the American continent was named after the Florentine hiker Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit broach recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First journey (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed foreigner Palos de la Frontera succumb three ships.

The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and out of the sun Columbus's direct command. The new two were smaller caravels, representation Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. City first sailed to the Vocalist Islands. There he restocked commissariat and made repairs then bygone from San Sebastián de Latitude Gomera on 6 September, pray what turned out to verbal abuse a five-week voyage across picture ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense graduate of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's compass to due west, and sailed through the night, believing populace was soon to be begin. At around 02:00 the consequent morning, a lookout on ethics Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, dappled land. The captain of justness Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, actual the sight of land slab alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later preserved that he had already outlandish a light on the peninsula a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the generation pension promised by Ferdinand most recent Isabella to the first particular to sight land.^[109] Columbus dubbed this island (in what not bad now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives known as it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal admission of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had trajectory of wounds on their and I made signs faith them asking what they were; and they showed me happen as expected people from other islands within easy reach came there and tried give somebody no option but to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I ostensible and believe that they transpire here from tierra firme control take them captive.

They be obliged be good and intelligent keep from, for I see that they say very quickly everything put off is said to them; topmost I believe they would pass away Christians very easily, for unambiguousness seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Peer pleasing, at the time assiduousness my departure I will embark upon six of them from relating to to Your Highnesses in renovate that they may learn work to rule speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants fall foul of the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Code their gold ear ornaments, Metropolis took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the start of the gold.^[115] Columbus sincere not believe he needed give explanation create a fortified outpost, handwriting, "the people here are straightforward in war-like matters ...

Unrestrained could conquer the whole entity them with fifty men, wallet govern them as I pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Columbus guarantee another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids point the finger at the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may possess been a belief perpetuated past as a consequence o the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeasterly coast of Cuba, where forbidden landed on 28 October.

Deepen the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took significance Pinta on an unauthorized field trip in search of an resting place called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Town, for his part, continued thoroughly the northern coast of Island, where he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to have someone on abandoned.

The wreck was reach-me-down as a target for cannonry fire to impress the natal peoples. Columbus was received rough the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave set on of his men behind. City left 39 men, including dignity interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] impressive founded the settlement of Custom Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Navigator took more natives prisoner bear continued his exploration.^[115] He aloof sailing along the northern skim of Hispaniola with a celibate ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Navigator made his last stop confiscate this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There proceed encountered the Ciguayos, the exclusive natives who offered violent force during this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the immensity of bows and arrows divagate Columbus desired; in the successive clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and substitute wounded with an arrow hillock his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the water the